This is a working overview of lactam bridge, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2025-12-03. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Regulatory status varies by jurisdiction, and the substance is frequently described as unapproved for therapeutic use. Some authorities classify it alongside prescription-only medicines or controlled categories, while others address it through general consumer protection rules. Analytical surveys have reported mismatches between label claims and measured content in products sold online, although the scope of such testing is limited. Whether these discrepancies are widespread remains an open question. Discussion in the literature therefore tends to combine chemistry, supply-chain observation and policy analysis.
The material is commonly handled as a lyophilized powder in sealed vials. The solid dissolves readily in water and in polar organic solvents, producing a clear solution after reconstitution. Light, heat and repeated freeze-thaw cycles are the concerns most often raised in handling guidance, because peptide bonds and the constrained ring can degrade. Working solutions are generally prepared fresh, and material left in solution is treated as less stable than the dry form. These properties shape how laboratories store and aliquot reference material.
Two structural changes distinguish the synthetic peptide from the natural hormone. A norleucine residue replaces methionine at one position, and a D-configured phenylalanine replaces the natural L-form at another. Both substitutions slow enzymatic breakdown, which extends the molecule's persistence relative to the parent hormone. The lactam bridge further constrains the backbone into a stable conformation. These features are standard design strategies in peptide chemistry and are not unique to this compound; they appear across many research peptides built for improved stability.
The compound was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by academic researchers investigating melanocortin signaling and pigmentation. Early work explored whether synthetic analogs could reproduce effects of the natural hormone under controlled conditions. The molecule never advanced through the full regulatory pathway required for approval as a medicine. From the mid-2000s onward it appeared in unregulated consumer markets, often distributed through informal channels. That gap between research origins and commercial availability shapes how the compound is discussed today.
Melanotan-2 is a synthetic peptide designed as an analog of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, a signaling molecule produced in the pituitary and skin. Its structure is a linear chain of seven amino acids that folds into a ring through an internal lactam bridge joining two side chains. The compound is sometimes written as MT-II or MEL-2 in informal and commercial contexts. It belongs to the melanocortin peptide family, a group of short signaling molecules that share a conserved core sequence recognized by melanocortin receptors.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typically supplied as a lyophilized solid in a sealed vial |
| Solubility class | Soluble in water and polar organic solvents | Reconstituted solutions are generally clear |
| Typical storage temperature | -20 degrees Celsius or below, dry | Protect from light; avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles |
| Common analytical methods | Reversed-phase HPLC-UV, LC-MS | Used for purity estimation and mass confirmation |
| Reported purity range | Area percentage above 95 percent | Reporting practice and acceptance limits differ by laboratory |
Handling guidance for melanotan II follows general practice for small synthetic peptides rather than a product-specific monograph. Lyophilized powder is typically kept at minus twenty degrees Celsius or colder, protected from light and moisture, because warmth and humidity accelerate degradation. Once reconstituted, solutions are usually refrigerated and used within a short window, as hydrolysis and microbial growth both become concerns. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are generally avoided. These conventions come from laboratory peptide chemistry and not from formal stability studies on this specific compound.
Analytical confirmation of identity relies on mass spectrometry, most often coupled to liquid chromatography. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography separates the peptide from related impurities and provides a purity estimate based on peak area. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry then confirms the expected molecular mass, while tandem mass spectrometry can map the fragment sequence. For research-grade material, these two techniques together form the standard minimum. Purity figures reported by vendors are frequently not traceable to an independent laboratory.
Melanocytes are the pigment-producing cells of the skin, and they carry melanocortin-1 receptors on their surface. When the receptor is activated, cyclic adenosine monophosphate rises inside the cell and raises the activity of enzymes such as tyrosinase, which increases melanin output. Melanotan-2 binds melanocortin-1 receptors in vitro and in animal models, and this binding is generally described as the basis for the tanning effect. Other receptors account for different effects: melanocortin-4 receptors contribute to appetite and erectile signalling, while melanocortin-3 and melanocortin-5 receptors contribute to energy balance and exocrine function.
Early published reports described melanotan-2 as a tanning agent without sun protection, which means darkening is not the same as protection against ultraviolet radiation. Later studies explored the peptide in erectile dysfunction, hemorrhagic shock, and some skin conditions. No regulator in the United States or Europe has approved it for clinical use. Many products labelled melanotan-2 are sold without approval and their identity and purity are unverified. Its long-term safety in humans remains an open question.
Melanotan-2, also written Melanotan II, is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide designed as an analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Its sequence is Ac-Nle-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-NH2, and the lactam bridge between the aspartate and lysine side chains constrains the peptide into a ring. This structural change increases receptor affinity and metabolic stability relative to the native hormone. The compound was created in the 1980s as a research tool for studying pigmentation biology.
Identity testing for a cyclic peptide of this size usually relies on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The mass spectrum confirms molecular weight, while the chromatographic trace indicates the proportion of related impurities. Tandem mass spectrometry can provide sequence-level information when fragmentation data are compared against a reference standard. Nuclear magnetic resonance is sometimes used to confirm the lactam bridge, although it requires more material and greater operator expertise than routine chromatographic methods.
Lyophilised peptide powder is comparatively stable when kept dry, cold and protected from light. Once dissolved, the molecule is exposed to hydrolysis, oxidation and microbial growth, and degradation accelerates at higher temperatures and in alkaline solution. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles concentrate solutes and promote aggregation. Handling guidance for research peptides commonly clusters around freezer temperatures for powder and short refrigerated use for reconstituted solutions, with pH control and sterile technique applied throughout.
Verification of a purchased sample requires documentation linking a batch to a certificate of analysis, and that document should be read for the methods used rather than the headline purity figure. A single chromatographic percentage does not establish identity. Independent laboratories can perform identity and content assays, but no such test establishes that a product is suitable for human use. Claims about efficacy rest largely on small, early studies rather than on replicated controlled trials, and that gap remains open.
Negatively charged phosphates near the axis repel each other, leaving the question of how the three-chain structure stays together. In a triple-helix model (specifically Pauling and Corey's model), some of the van der Waals distances appear to be too small. Fraser's model differed from Pauling and Corey's in that in his model the phosphates are on the outside and the bases are on the inside, linked together by hydrogen bonds. However, Watson and Crick found Fraser's model to be too ill-defined to comment specifically on its inadequacies. An alternative triple-stranded DNA structure was described in 1957. Felsenfeld, Davies, and Rich predicted that if one strand contained only purines and the other strand only purines, the strand would undergo a conformational change to form a triple stranded DNA helix. The triple-stranded DNA (H-DNA) was predicted to be composed of one polypurine and two polypyrimidine strands. It was thought to occur in only one in vivo biological process: as an intermediate product during the action of the E. coli recombination enzyme RecA. Early models in the 1960s predicted the formation of complexes between polycetiylic and guanine oligonucleotides. The models suggested interactions known as Hoogsten pairing (non-Watson-Crick interactions) located in the major groove. Shortly after, triple helices composed of one pyrimidine and two purine strands were predicted. The discovery of in H-DNA stretches in supercoiled plasmids peaked modern interest in the potential function of triplex structures in living cells.
== External links == Association des medecins rhumatologues du Quebec American College of Rheumatology European League Against Rheumatism Consortium of Rheumatology Researchers of North America, Inc. British Society for Rheumatology Canadian Rheumatology Association Association of Rheumatology Health Professionals (archived 3 March 2009) German Society for Rheumatology
=== Particles and bacteria === Particles in UPW can cause defects in semiconductors, especially in photolithographic processes that define nanometer-sized features. Particulates can interfere with etching processes and bridge nanometer-scale features in final circuits causing electrical failures. Particles can be controlled by filtration for larger particles and ultrafiltration for nanometer scale particles. Particle sources can include bacterial fragments or particles from the walls of the fluid handling system. Bacteria have been referred to as one of the most obstinate on this list to control as certain bacteria can still grow, even in low-nutrient environments. Bacteria can be controlled by sanitization or ultrafiltration (found in some pharmaceutical, but mostly semiconductor industries). Chemical sanitization can be performed using ozone or hydrogen peroxide.
Wagner described the necessity of adaptation from the source material and said that the 1995 film's attempt to directly replicate the comic's motorcycle was unable to steer because the tyres were too large. Garland and VFX supervisor Jon Thum began developing the Slo-Mo concept sequences in 2009 during filming for Never Let Me Go. They experimented with an effect to replicate the visual effects of hallucinogenic drugs to see how long it could be used before it distracted the viewer from the story or action sequence. They continued to develop and modify the effect until the end of post-production, tweaking colours, colour saturation, image framing and camera motion. Slo-Mo scenes also feature a rainbow colour scheme and sparkle highlights to create an unreal and otherworldly effect. The filmmakers experimented with blood bags, prosthetics, shooting real bullets, and compressed air to see the effect of direct body hits in slow motion. In the finished film, compressed air was used to create impact ripples on flesh. Garland said the concept was inspired by nature documentaries that used high-speed photography to capture animals in slow motion. He said, "You see a whale or a shark breach the water ... then you'd stop thinking about the animal and you get transfixed by ... how water droplets connect and touch against each other. Somehow like a real [drug] trip, sort of stepping outside it but staying attached at the same time." He questioned whether the technique could be used with violence to make it purely aesthetic.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The horticulture industry embraces the production, processing and shipping of and the market for fruits and vegetables. As such it is a sector of agribusiness and industrialized agriculture. Industrialized horticulture sometimes also includes the floriculture industry and production and trade of ornamental plants. Among the most important fruits are:
== As a military combat ration == Jerky, particularly beef jerky, is a common component of military combat rations, both historical and modern. It is included because it is a convenient, shelf-stable, and nutritious protein source that soldiers can easily carry and consume in the field. Jerky has been a staple in military rations for centuries due to its durability and ability to stay fresh without refrigeration. The Continental Army in the Revolutionary War era, for example, included salted meat and jerky as part of their rations when fresh food was scarce. It is also a common component of modern military rations, such as the Meal, Ready-to-Eat (MRE). Some variations of jerky are found in rations like the "First Strike Ration", specifically designed for initial deployment periods, providing an eat-on-the-move option. Jerky is lightweight, easy to store, and provides a concentrated source of protein and energy. It is also a great option for survival rations when fresh or prepared food is unavailable. While traditional beef jerky is common, military rations also include other variations such as turkey jerky and osmotically dried meat. Some experimental rations even include caffeinated jerky.
=== EC 2.4.1: Hexosyltransferases === EC 2.4.1.1: Glycogen phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.2: dextrin dextranase EC 2.4.1.3: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.25 EC 2.4.1.4: amylosucrase EC 2.4.1.5: dextransucrase EC 2.4.1.6: deleted EC 2.4.1.7: sucrose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.8: maltose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.9: inulosucrase EC 2.4.1.10: levansucrase EC 2.4.1.11: glycogen(starch) synthase EC 2.4.1.12: cellulose synthase (UDP-forming) EC 2.4.1.13: sucrose synthase EC 2.4.1.14: sucrose-phosphate synthase EC 2.4.1.15: α,α-trehalose-phosphate synthase (UDP-forming) EC 2.4.1.16: chitin synthase EC 2.4.1.17: glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.18: ,4-α-glucan branching enzyme EC 2.4.1.19: cyclomaltodextrin glucanotransferase EC 2.4.1.20: cellobiose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.21: starch synthase EC 2.4.1.22: lactose synthase EC 2.4.1.23: sphingosine β-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.24: 1,4-α-glucan 6-α-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.25: 4-α-glucanotransferase EC 2.4.1.26: DNA α-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.27: DNA β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.28: glucosyl-DNA β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.29: cellulose synthase (GDP-forming) EC 2.4.1.30: 1,3-β-oligoglucan phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.31: laminaribiose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.32: glucomannan 4-β-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.33: mannuronan synthase EC 2.4.1.34: 1,3-β-glucan synthase EC 2.4.1.35: phenol β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.36: α,α-trehalose-phosphate synthase (GDP-forming) EC 2.4.1.37: fucosylgalactoside 3-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.38: β-N-acetylglucosaminylglycopeptide β-1,4-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.39: steroid N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.40: glycoprotein-fucosylgalactoside α-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.41: polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.42: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.17 EC 2.4.1.43: polygalacturonate 4-α-galacturonosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.44: lipopolysaccharide 3-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.45: now included with EC 2.4.1.47, N-acylsphingosine galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.46: monogalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase EC 2.4.1.47: N-acylsphingosine galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.48: heteroglycan α-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.49: cellodextrin phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.50: procollagen galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.51: now covered by EC 2.4.1.101, EC 2.4.1.143, EC 2.4.1.144 and EC 2.4.1.145 EC 2.4.1.52: poly(glycerol-phosphate) α-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.53: poly(ribitol-phosphate) β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.54: undecaprenyl-phosphate mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.55: Now EC 2.7.8.14, CDP-ribitol ribitolphosphotransferase EC 2.4.1.56: lipopolysaccharide N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.57: Newer studies have shown that this is catalysed by two independent activities now covered by EC 2.4.1.345, phosphatidyl-myo-inositol α-mannosyl transferase and EC 2.4.1.346, phosphatidyl-myo-inositol dimannoside synthase EC 2.4.1.58: lipopolysaccharide glucosyltransferase I EC 2.4.1.59: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.17 EC 2.4.1.60: CDP-abequose:α-D-Man-(1→4)-α-L-Rha-(1→3)-α-D-Gal-PP-Und α-1,3-abequosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.61: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.17 EC 2.4.1.62: ganglioside galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.63: linamarin synthase EC 2.4.1.64: α,α-trehalose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.65: 3-galactosyl-N-acetylglucosaminide 4-α-L-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.66: procollagen glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.67: galactinol—raffinose galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.68: glycoprotein 6-α-L-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.69: type 1 galactoside α-(1,2)-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.70: poly(ribitol-phosphate) α-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.71: arylamine glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.72: now EC 2.4.2.24, 1,4-β-D-xylan synthase EC 2.4.1.73: lipopolysaccharide glucosyltransferase II EC 2.4.1.74: glycosaminoglycan galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.75: deleted entry, insufficient evidence to conclude that this is a different enzyme from EC 2.4.1.43 EC 2.4.1.76: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.17 EC 2.4.1.77: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.17 EC 2.4.1.78: phosphopolyprenol glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.79: globotriaosylceramide 3-β-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.80: ceramide glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.81: flavone 7-O-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.82: galactinol—sucrose galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.83: dolichyl-phosphate β-D -mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.84: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.17 EC 2.4.1.85: cyanohydrin β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.86: N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminide β-(1,3)-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.87: N-acetyllactosaminide 3-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.88: globoside α-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.89: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.69, type 1 galactoside α-(1,2)-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.90: N-acetyllactosamine synthase EC 2.4.1.91: flavonol 3-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.92: (N-acetylneuraminyl)-galactosylglucosylceramide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.93: Now EC 4.2.2.18, inulin fructotransferase (DFA-III-forming) EC 2.4.1.94: protein N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.95: deleted EC 2.4.1.96: sn-glycerol-3-phosphate 1-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.97: 1,3-β-D-glucan phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.98: deleted, Now included with EC 2.4.1.90, N-acetyllactosamine synthase EC 2.4.1.99: sucrose:sucrose fructosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.100: 2,1-fructan:2,1-fructan 1-fructosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.101: α-1,3-mannosyl-glycoprotein 2-β-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.102: β-1,3-galactosyl-O-glycosyl-glycoprotein β-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.103: alizarin 2-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.104: o-dihydroxycoumarin 7-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.105: vitexin β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.106: isovitexin β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.107: deleted, now included with EC 2.4.1.17, glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.108: deleted, now included with EC 2.4.1.17, glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.109: dolichyl-phosphate-mannose—protein mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.110: tRNA-queuosine β-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.111: coniferyl-alcohol glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.112: The protein referred to in this entry is now known to be glycogenin so the entry has been incorporated into EC 2.4.1.186, glycogenin glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.113: α-1,4-glucan-protein synthase (ADP-forming) EC 2.4.1.114: 2-coumarate O-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.115: anthocyanidin 3-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.116: cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside 5-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.117: dolichyl-phosphate β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.118: cytokinin 7-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.119: transferred to EC 2.4.99.18, dolichyl-diphosphooligosaccharideprotein glycotransferase EC 2.4.1.120: sinapate 1-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.121: indole-3-acetate β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.122: N-acetylgalactosaminide β-1,3-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.123: inositol 3-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.124: Now EC 2.4.1.87, N-acetyllactosaminide 3-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.125: sucrose—1,6-α-glucan 3(6)-α-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.126: hydroxycinnamate 4-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.127: monoterpenol β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.128: scopoletin glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.129: peptidoglycan glycosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.130: Now covered by EC 2.4.1.258, EC 2.4.1.259, EC 2.4.1.260 and EC 2.4.1.261 EC 2.4.1.131: GDP-Man:Man3GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,2-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.132: GDP-Man:Man1GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,3-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.133: xylosylprotein 4-β-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.134: galactosylxylosylprotein 3-β-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.135: galactosylgalactosylxylosylprotein 3-β-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.136: gallate 1-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.137: sn-glycerol-3-phosphate 2-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.138: mannotetraose 2-α-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.139: maltose synthase EC 2.4.1.140: alternansucrase EC 2.4.1.141: N-acetylglucosaminyldiphosphodolichol N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.142: chitobiosyldiphosphodolichol β-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.143: α-1,6-mannosyl-glycoprotein 2-β-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.144: β-1,4-mannosyl-glycoprotein 4-β-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.145: α-1,3-mannosyl-glycoprotein 4-β-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.146: β-1,3-galactosyl-O-glycosyl-glycoprotein β-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.147: acetylgalactosaminyl-O-glycosyl-glycoprotein β-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.148: acetylgalactosaminyl-O-glycosyl-glycoprotein β-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.149: N-acetyllactosaminide β-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.150: N-acetyllactosaminide β-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.151: now included with EC 2.4.1.87 N-acetyllactosaminide 3-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.152: 4-galactosyl-N-acetylglucosaminide 3-α-L-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.153: UDP-N-acetylglucosamine—dolichyl-phosphate N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.154: identical to EC 2.4.1.79, globotriaosylceramide 3-β-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.155: α-1,6-mannosyl-glycoprotein 6-β-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.156: indolylacetyl-myo-inositol galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.157: 1,2-diacylglycerol 3-glucosyltransferase, now classified as EC 2.4.1.336, monoglucosyldiacylglycerol synthase, and EC 2.4.1.337, 1,2-diacylglycerol 3-α-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.158: 13-hydroxydocosanoate 13-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.159: flavonol-3-O-glucoside L-rhamnosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.160: pyridoxine 5′-O-β-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.161: oligosaccharide 4-α-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.162: aldose β-D-fructosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.163: now included in EC 2.4.1.149, N-acetyllactosaminide β-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.164: now included with EC 2.4.1.150, N-acetyllactosaminide β-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.165: N-acetylneuraminylgalactosylglucosylceramide β-1,4-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.166: raffinose—raffinose α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.167: sucrose 6F-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.168: xyloglucan 4-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.169: now EC 2.4.2.39, xyloglucan 6-xylosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.170: isoflavone 7-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.171: methyl-ONN-azoxymethanol β-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.172: salicyl-alcohol β-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.173: sterol 3β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.174: glucuronylgalactosylproteoglycan 4-β-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.175: glucuronosyl-N-acetylgalactosaminyl-proteoglycan 4-β-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.176: gibberellin β-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.177: cinnamate β-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.178: hydroxymandelonitrile glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.179: lactosylceramide β-1,3-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.180: lipopolysaccharide N-acetylmannosaminouronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.181: hydroxyanthraquinone glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.182: lipid-A-disaccharide synthase EC 2.4.1.183: α-1,3-glucan synthase EC 2.4.1.184: galactolipid galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.185: flavanone 7-O-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.186: glycogenin glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.187: N-acetylglucosaminyldiphosphoundecaprenol N-acetyl-β-D-mannosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.188: N-acetylglucosaminyldiphosphoundecaprenol glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.189: uteolin 7-O-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.190: luteolin-7-O-glucuronide 2′′-O-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.191: luteolin-7-O-diglucuronide 4′-O-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.192: nuatigenin 3β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.193: sarsapogenin 3β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.194: 4-hydroxybenzoate 4-O-β-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.195: N-hydroxythioamide S-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.196: nicotinate glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.197: high-mannose-oligosaccharide β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.198: phosphatidylinositol N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.199: β-mannosylphosphodecaprenol—mannooligosaccharide 6-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.200: now EC 4.2.2.17, inulin fructotransferase (DFA-I-forming) EC 2.4.1.201: α-1,6-mannosyl-glycoprotein 4-β-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.202: 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-3(4H)-one 2-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.203: trans-zeatin O-β-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.204: now EC 2.4.2.40, zeatin O-β-D-xylosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.205: galactogen 6β-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.206: lactosylceramide 1,3-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.207: xyloglucan:xyloglucosyl transferase EC 2.4.1.208: diglucosyl diacylglycerol synthase (1,2-linking) EC 2.4.1.209: cis-p-coumarate glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.210: limonoid glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.211: 1,3-β-galactosyl-N-acetylhexosamine phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.212: hyaluronan synthase EC 2.4.1.213: glucosylglycerol-phosphate synthase EC 2.4.1.214: glycoprotein 3-α-L-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.215: cis-zeatin O-β-D-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.216: trehalose 6-phosphate phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.217: mannosyl-3-phosphoglycerate synthase EC 2.4.1.218: hydroquinone glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.219: vomilenine glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.220: indoxyl-UDPG glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.221: peptide-O-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.222: O-fucosylpeptide 3-β-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.223: glucuronosyl-galactosyl-proteoglycan 4-α-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.224: glucuronosyl-N-acetylglucosaminyl-proteoglycan 4-α-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.225: N-acetylglucosaminyl-proteoglycan 4-β-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.226: N-acetylgalactosaminyl-proteoglycan 3-β-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.227: undecaprenyldiphospho-muramoylpentapeptide β-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.228: lactosylceramide 4-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.229: [Skp1-protein]-hydroxyproline N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.230: kojibiose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.231: α,α-trehalose phosphorylase (configuration-retaining) EC 2.4.1.232: initiation-specific α-1,6-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.233: deleted: identical to EC 2.4.1.115, anthocyanidin 3-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.234: kaempferol 3-O-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.235: deleted: identical to EC 2.4.1.116, cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside 5-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.236: flavanone 7-O-glucoside 2′′-O-β-L-rhamnosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.237: flavonol 7-O-β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.238: delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside 3′-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.239: flavonol-3-O-glucoside glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.240: flavonol-3-O-glycoside glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.241: flavonol-3-O-glycoside glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.242: NDP-glucose—starch glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.243: 6G-fructosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.244: N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl-glycoprotein 4-β-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.245: α,α-trehalose synthase EC 2.4.1.246: mannosylfructose-phosphate synthase EC 2.4.1.247: β-D-galactosyl-(1→4)-L-rhamnose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.248: cycloisomaltooligosaccharide glucanotransferase EC 2.4.1.249: delphinidin 3′,5′-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.250: D-inositol-3-phosphate glycosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.251: GlcA-β-(1→2)-D-Man-α-(1→3)-D-Glc-β-(1→4)-D-Glc-α-1-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol 4-β-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.252: GDP-mannose:cellobiosyl-diphosphopolyprenol α-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.253: baicalein 7-O-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.254: cyanidin-3-O-glucoside 2′′-O-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.255: protein O-GlcNAc transferase EC 2.4.1.256: dolichyl-P-Glc:Glc2Man9GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,2-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.257: GDP-Man:Man2GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,6-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.258: dolichyl-P-Man:Man5GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,3-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.259: dolichyl-P-Man:Man6GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,2-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.260: dolichyl-P-Man:Man7GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,6-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.261: dolichyl-P-Man:Man8GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,2-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.262: soyasapogenol glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.263: abscisate β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.264: D-Man-α-(1→3)-D-Glc-β-(1→4)-DD-Glc-α-1-diphosphoundecaprenol 2-β-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.265: olichyl-P-Glc:Glc1Man9GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,3-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.266: glucosyl-3-phosphoglycerate synthase EC 2.4.1.267: dolichyl-P-Glc:Man9GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol α-1,3-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.268: glucosylglycerate synthase EC 2.4.1.269: mannosylglycerate synthase EC 2.4.1.270: mannosylglucosyl-3-phosphoglycerate synthase EC 2.4.1.271: crocetin glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.272: soyasapogenol B glucuronide galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.273: soyasaponin III rhamnosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.274: glucosylceramide β-1,4-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.275: neolactotriaosylceramide β-1,4-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.276: zeaxanthin glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.277: glycosyltransferase DesVII EC 2.4.1.278: desosaminyl transferase EryCIII EC 2.4.1.279: nigerose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.280: N,N′-diacetylchitobiose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.281: 4-O-β-D-mannosyl-D-glucose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.282: 3-O-α-D-glucosyl-L-rhamnose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.283: 2-deoxystreptamine N-acetyl-D-glucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.284: 2-deoxystreptamine glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.285: UDP-GlcNAc:ribostamycin N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.286: chalcone 4′-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.287: rhamnopyranosyl-N-acetylglucosaminyl-diphospho-decaprenol β-1,4/1,5-galactofuranosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.288: galactofuranosylgalactofuranosylrhamnosyl-N-acetylglucosaminyl-diphospho-decaprenol β-1,5/1,6-galactofuranosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.289: N-acetylglucosaminyl-diphospho-decaprenol L-rhamnosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.290: N,N′-diacetylbacillosaminyl-diphospho-undecaprenol α-1,3-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.291: N-acetylgalactosamine-N,N′-diacetylbacillosaminyl-diphospho-undecaprenol 4-α-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.292: GalNAc-α-(1→4)-GalNAc-α-(1→3)-diNAcBac-PP-undecaprenol α-1,4-N-acetyl-D-galactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.293: GalNAc5-diNAcBac-PP-undecaprenol β-1,3-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.294: cyanidin 3-O-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.295: anthocyanin 3-O-sambubioside 5-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.296: anthocyanidin 3-O-coumaroylrutinoside 5-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.297: anthocyanidin 3-O-glucoside 2′′-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.298: anthocyanidin 3-O-glucoside 5-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.299: cyanidin 3-O-glucoside 5-O-glucosyltransferase (acyl-glucose) EC 2.4.1.300: cyanidin 3-O-glucoside 7-O-glucosyltransferase (acyl-glucose) EC 2.4.1.301: 2′-deamino-2′-hydroxyneamine 1-α-D-kanosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.302: L-demethylnoviosyl transferase EC 2.4.1.303: UDP-Gal:α-D-GlcNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol β-1,3-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.304: UDP-Gal:α-D-GlcNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol β-1,4-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.305: UDP-Glc:α-D-GlcNAc-glucosaminyl-diphosphoundecaprenol β-1,3-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.306: UDP-GalNAc:α-D-GalNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,3-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.307: UDP-Gal:α-D-GalNAc-1,3-α-D-GalNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol β-1,3-galactosyltransferase. Now included in EC 2.4.1.122, N-acetylgalactosaminide β-1,3-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.308: GDP-Fuc:β-D-Gal-1,3-α-D-GalNAc-1,3-α-GalNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,2-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.309: UDP-Gal:α-L-Fuc-1,2-β-Gal-1,3-α-GalNAc-1,3-α-GalNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,3-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.310: vancomycin aglycone glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.311: chloroorienticin B synthase EC 2.4.1.312: protein O-mannose β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.313: protein O-mannose β-1,3-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.314: ginsenoside Rd glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.315: diglucosyl diacylglycerol synthase (1,6-linking) EC 2.4.1.316: tylactone mycaminosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.317: O-mycaminosyltylonolide 6-deoxyallosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.318: demethyllactenocin mycarosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.319: β-1,4-mannooligosaccharide phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.320: 1,4-β-mannosyl-N-acetylglucosamine phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.321: cellobionic acid phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.322: devancosaminyl-vancomycin vancosaminetransferase EC 2.4.1.323: 7-deoxyloganetic acid glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.324: 7-deoxyloganetin glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.325: TDP-N-acetylfucosamine:lipid II N-acetylfucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.326: aklavinone 7-L-rhodosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.327: aclacinomycin-T 2-deoxy-L-fucose transferase EC 2.4.1.328: erythronolide mycarosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.329: sucrose 6F-phosphate phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.330: β-D-glucosyl crocetin β-1,6-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.331: 8-demethyltetracenomycin C L-rhamnosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.332: 1,2-α-glucosylglycerol phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.333: 1,2-β-oligoglucan phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.334: 1,3-α-oligoglucan phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.335: dolichyl N-acetyl-α-D-glucosaminyl phosphate 3-β-D-2,3-diacetamido-2,3-dideoxy-β-D-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.336: monoglucosyldiacylglycerol synthase EC 2.4.1.337: 1,2-diacylglycerol 3-α-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.338: validoxylamine A glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.339: β-1,2-mannobiose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.340: 1,2-β-oligomannan phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.341: α-1,2-colitosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.342: α-maltose-1-phosphate synthase EC 2.4.1.343: UDP-Gal:α-D-GlcNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,3-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.344: type 2 galactoside α-(1,2)-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.345: phosphatidyl-myo-inositol α-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.346: phosphatidyl-myo-inositol dimannoside synthase EC 2.4.1.347: α,α-trehalose-phosphate synthase (ADP-forming) EC 2.4.1.348: N-acetyl-α-D-glucosaminyl-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol 3-α-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.349: mannosyl-N-acetyl-α-D-glucosaminyl-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol 3-α-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.350: mogroside IE synthase EC 2.4.1.351: rhamnogalacturonan I rhamnosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.352: glucosylglycerate phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.353: sordaricin 6-deoxyaltrosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.354: (R)-mandelonitrile β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.355: poly(ribitol-phosphate) β-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.356: glucosyl-dolichyl phosphate glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.357: phlorizin synthase EC 2.4.1.358: acylphloroglucinol glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.359: glucosylglycerol phosphorylase (configuration-retaining) EC 2.4.1.360: 2-hydroxyflavanone C-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.361: GDP-mannose:di-myo-inositol-1,3′-phosphate β-1,2-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.362: α-(1→3) branching sucrase EC 2.4.1.363: ginsenoside 20-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.364: protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside 3-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.365: protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside-3-O-glucoside 2′′-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.366: ginsenoside F1 6-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.367: ginsenoside 6-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.368: oleanolate 3-O-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.369: enterobactin C-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.370: inositol phosphorylceramide mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.371: polymannosyl GlcNAc-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol 2,3-α-mannosylpolymerase EC 2.4.1.372: mutansucrase EC 2.4.1.373: α-(1→2) branching sucrase EC 2.4.1.374: β-1,2-mannooligosaccharide synthase EC 2.4.1.375: rhamnogalacturonan I galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.376: EGF-domain serine glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.377: dTDP-Rha:α-D-Gal-diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,3-rhamnosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.378: GDP-mannose:α-L-Rha-(1→3)-α-D-Gal-PP-Und α-1,4-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.379: GDP-Man:α-D-Gal-diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,3-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.380: GDP-Man:α-D-Man-(1→3)-α-D-Gal diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,2-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.381: dTDP-Rha:α-D-Man-(1→3)-α-D-Gal diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,2-rhamnosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.382: CDP-abequose:α-L-Rha2OAc-(1→2)-α-D-Man-(1→2)-α-D-Man-(1→3)-α-D-Gal-PP-Und α-1,3-abequosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.383: GDP-Man:α-L-Rha-(1→3)-α-D-Gal-PP-Und β-1,4-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.384: NDP-glycosyltransferase
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Brands == As of 2017, isotretinoin was marketed under many brand names worldwide: A-Cnotren, Absorica, Accuran, Accutane, Accutin, Acne Free, Acnecutan, Acnegen, Acnemin, Acneone, Acneral, Acnestar, Acnetane, Acnetin A, Acnetrait, Acnetrex, Acnogen, Acnotin, Acnotren, Acretin, Actaven, Acugen, Acutret, Acutrex, Ai Si Jie, Aisoskin, Aknal, Aknefug Iso, Aknenormin, Aknesil, Aknetrent, Amnesteem, Atlacne, Atretin, Axotret, Casius, Ciscutan, Claravis, Contracné, Curacne, Curacné, Curakne, Curatane, Cuticilin, Decutan, Dercutane, Effederm, Epuris, Eudyna, Farmacne, Flexresan, Flitrion, I-Ret, Inerta, Inflader, Inotrin, Isac, Isdiben, Isoacne, Isobest, Isocural, Isoderm, Isoface, IsoGalen, Isogeril, Isolve, Isoprotil, Isoriac, Isosupra, Isosupra Lidose, Isotane, Isotina, Isotinon, Isotren, Isotret, Isotretinoin, Isotretinoina, Isotretinoína, Isotretinoine, Isotretinoïne, Isotrétinoïne, Isotretinoinum, Isotrex, Isotrin, Isotroin, Ivory, Izotek, Izotziaja, Lisacne, Locatret, Mayesta, Medinac, Myorisan, Neotrex, Netlook, Nimegen, Noitron, Noroseptan, Novacne, Oralne, Oraret, Oratane, Piplex, Policano, Procuta, Reducar, Retacnyl, Retin A, Roaccutan, Roaccutane, Roacnetan, Roacta, Roacutan, Rocne, Rocta, Sotret, Stiefotrex, Tai Er Si, Teweisi, Tretin, Tretinac, Tretinex, Tretiva, Tufacne, Zenatane, Zerocutan, Zonatian ME, and Zoretanin. The topical combination drug erythromycin/isotretinoin combines the antibiotic erythromycin with isotretinoin and has been marketed under the brand names Isotrex Eritromicina, Isotrexin, and Munderm.
The parametrium is the fibrous and fatty connective tissue that surrounds the uterus. This tissue separates the supravaginal portion of the cervix from the bladder. The parametrium lies in front of the cervix and extends laterally between the layers of the broad ligaments. It connects the uterus to other tissues in the pelvis. It is different from the perimetrium, which is the outermost layer of the uterus. The uterine artery and ovarian ligament are located in the parametrium. An associated form of pelvic inflammatory disease is inflammation of the parametrium known as parametritis.
{\displaystyle \Delta G=\sum _{j=1}^{m}\nu _{j}\mu _{j}=\sum _{j=1}^{m}\nu _{j}(\mu _{j}^{\ominus }+RT\ln(\{R_{j}\}))=\Delta G^{\ominus }+RT\ln \left(\prod _{j=1}^{m}\{R_{j}\}^{\nu _{j}}\right)=\Delta G^{\ominus }+RT\ln(K_{c})}
6 September PAVN/VC rocket and mortar hit the training center of the National Police Field Force in Dalat, killing five trainees and wounding 26. North Vietnam announced that Ho Chi Minh would be succeeded by a committee consisting of Lê Duẩn, Trường Chinh, Võ Nguyên Giáp and Phạm Văn Đồng, in fact Lê Duẩn had effectively led the North Vietnamese government since 1964 with Ho being largely a figurehead.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The dry powder is more stable during transport and storage than a solution. It also allows a known amount of material to be reconstituted at a chosen concentration.
Most certificates state a percentage derived from chromatographic peak area, alongside a mass confirmation. The exact criteria and acceptance thresholds vary between laboratories.
Dry powder is kept frozen or refrigerated and protected from light and moisture. Solutions are handled cold and used promptly to limit degradation.
It is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide modeled on alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. It carries two non-natural substitutions and a cyclic bridge that increase its stability relative to the natural hormone. It circulates as a research chemical and is not an approved medicine.